Force Between Parallel Conductors
Two wires carrying current in the vicinity of one another exert a force on each other because of their magnetic fields. An end view of two conductors is shown in Figure 12-292. In Figure 12-292A, electron flow in both conductors is toward the reader, and the magnetic fields are clockwise around the conductors. Between the wires, the fields cancel because the directions of the two fields oppose each other. The wires are forced in the direction of the weaker field, toward each other. This force is one of attraction. In Figure 12-292B, the electron flow in the two wires is in opposite directions.
The magnetic fields are, therefore, clockwise in one and counterclockwise in the other, as shown. The fields reinforce each other between the wires, and the wires are forced in the direction of the weaker field, away from each other. This force is one of repulsion.
To summarize: conductors carrying current in the same direction tend to be drawn together; conductors carrying current in opposite directions tend to be repelled from each other.
Developing Torque
If a coil in which current is flowing is placed in a magnetic field, a force is produced which causes the coil to rotate. In the coil shown in Figure 12-293, current flows inward on side A and outward on side B. The magnetic field about B is clockwise and that about A, counterclockwise. As previously explained, a force develops which pushes side B downward. At the same time, the field of the magnets and the field about A, in which the current is inward, adds at the bottom and subtracts at the top. Therefore, A moves upward. The coil rotates until its plane is perpendicular to the magnetic lines between the north and south poles of the magnet, as indicated in Figure 12-293 by the white coil at right angles to the black coil.
The tendency of a force to produce rotation is called torque. When the steering wheel of a car is turned, torque is applied. The engine of an airplane gives torque to the propeller. Torque is developed also by the reacting magnetic fields about the current carrying coil just described. This is the torque, which turns the coil.
The right-hand motor rule can be used to determine the direction a current carrying wire moves in a magnetic field. As illustrated in Figure 12-294, if the index finger of the right hand is pointed in the direction of the magnetic field and the second finger in the direction of current flow, the thumb indicates the direction the current carrying wire moves.
The amount of torque developed in a coil depends upon several factors: the strength of the magnetic field, the number of turns in the coil, and the position of the coil in the field. Magnets are made of special steel that produces a strong field. Since there is torque acting on each turn, the greater the number of turns on the coil, the greater the torque. In a coil carrying a steady current located in a uniform magnetic field, the torque varies at successive positions of rotation. [Figure 12-295] When the plane of the coil is parallel to the lines of force, the torque is zero. When its plane cuts the lines of force at right angles, the torque is 100 percent. At intermediate positions, the torque ranges between 0 and 100 percent.
Basic DC Motor
A coil of wire through which the current flows rotates when placed in a magnetic field. This is the technical basis governing the construction of a DC motor. [Figure 12-296] However, if the connecting wires from the battery were permanently fastened to the terminals of the coil and there was a flow of current, the coil would rotate only until it lined itself up with the magnetic field. Then, it would stop, because the torque at that point would be 0.
A motor, of course, must continue rotating. It is therefore necessary to design a device that reverses the current in the coil just at the time the coil becomes parallel to the lines of force. This creates torque again and causes the coil to rotate. If the current reversing device is set up to reverse the current each time the coil is about to stop, the coil can be made to continue rotating as long as desired.
One method of doing this is to connect the circuit so that, as the coil rotates, each contact slides off the terminal to which it connects and slides onto the terminal of opposite polarity. In other words, the coil contacts switch terminals continuously as the coil rotates, preserving the torque and keeping the coil rotating. In Figure 12-296, the coil terminal segments are labeled A and B. As the coil rotates, the segments slide onto and past the fixed terminals or brushes. With this arrangement, the direction of current in the side of the coil next to the north-seeking pole flows toward the reader, and the force acting on that side of the coil turns it downward. The part of the motor that changes the current from one wire to another is called the commutator.
Position A
When the coil is positioned as shown in Figure 12-296A, current flows from the negative terminal of the battery to the negative (−) brush, to segment B of the commutator, through the loop to segment A of the commutator, to the positive (+) brush, and then back to the positive terminal of the battery. By using the right-hand motor rule, it is seen that the coil rotates counterclockwise. The torque at this position of the coil is maximum, since the greatest number of lines of force is being cut by the coil.
Position B
When the coil has rotated 90° to the position shown in Figure 12-296B, segments A and B of the commutator no longer make contact with the battery circuit and no current can flow through the coil. At this position, the torque has reached a minimum value, since a minimum number of lines of force are being cut. However, the momentum of the coil carries it beyond this position until the segments again make contact with the brushes, and current again enters the coil; this time, though, it enters through segment A and leaves through segment B. However, since the positions of segments A and B have also been reversed, the effect of the current is as before, the torque acts in the same direction, and the coil continues its counterclockwise rotation.
Position C
On passing through the position shown in Figure 12-296C, the torque again reaches maximum.
Position D
Continued rotation carries the coil again to a position of minimum torque as in Figure 12-296D. At this position, the brushes no longer carry current, but once more the momentum rotates the coil to the point where current enters through segment B and leaves through A. Further rotation brings the coil to the starting point and, thus, one revolution is completed.
The switching of the coil terminals from the positive to the negative brushes occurs twice per revolution of the coil.
The torque in a motor containing only a single coil is neither continuous nor very effective, for there are two positions where there is actually no torque at all. To overcome this, a practical DC motor contains a large number of coils wound on the armature. These coils are so spaced that, for any position of the armature, there are coils near the poles of the magnet. This makes the torque both continuous and strong. The commutator, likewise, contains a large number of segments instead of only two.
The armature in a practical motor is not placed between the poles of a permanent magnet but between those of an electromagnet, since a much stronger magnetic field can be furnished. The core is usually made of a mild or annealed steel, which can be magnetized strongly by induction. The current magnetizing the electromagnet is from the same source that supplies the current to the armature.
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