Conventional Flow and Electron Flow
Today’s technician will find that there are two competing schools of thought and analytical practices regarding the flow of electricity. The two are called the conventional current theory and the electron theory.
Conventional Flow
Of the two, the conventional current theory was the first to be developed and, through many years of use, this method has become ingrained in electrical texts. The theory was initially advanced by Benjamin Franklin who reasoned that current flowed out of a positive source into a negative source or an area that lacked an abundance of charge. The notation assigned to the electric charges was positive (+) for the abundance of charge and negative (−) for a lack of charge. It then seemed natural to visualize the flow of current as being from the positive (+) to the negative (−).
Electron Flow
Later discoveries were made that proved just the opposite is true. Electron flow is what actually happens when an abundance of electrons flow out of the negative (−) source to an area that lacks electrons or the positive (+) source. Both conventional flow and electron flow are used in industry. Many textbooks in current use employ both electron flow and conventional flow methods. From the practical standpoint of the technician troubleshooting a system, it makes little to no difference which way current is flowing as long as it is used consistently in the analysis.
Electromotive Force (Voltage)
Unlike current, which is easy to visualize as a flow, voltage is a variable that is determined between two points. Often, we refer to voltage as a value across two points. It is the electromotive force (emf) or the push or pressure felt in a conductor that ultimately moves the electrons in a flow. The symbol for emf is the capital letter “E.”
Across the terminals of the typical aircraft battery, voltage can be measured as the potential difference of 12 volts or 24 volts. That is to say that between the two terminal posts of the battery, there is an emf of 12 or 24 volts available to push current through a circuit. Relatively free electrons in the negative terminal move toward the excessive number of positive charges in the positive terminal. Recall from the discussion on static electricity that like charges repel each other but opposite charges attract each other. The net result is a flow or current through a conductor. There cannot be a flow in a conductor unless there is an applied voltage from a battery, generator, or ground power unit. The potential difference, or the voltage across any two points in an electrical system, can be determined by:
Where
Figure 12-37 illustrates the flow of electrons of electric current. Two interconnected water tanks demonstrate that when a difference of pressure exists between the two tanks, water flows until the two tanks are equalized. The illustration shows the level of water in tank A to be at a higher level, reading 10 psi (higher potential energy) than the water level in tank B, reading 2 psi (lower potential energy). Between the two tanks, there is 8-psi potential difference. If the valve in the interconnecting line between the tanks is opened, water flows from tank A into tank B until the level of water (potential energy) of both tanks is equalized. It is important to note that it was not the pressure in tank A that caused the water to flow; rather, it was the difference in pressure between tank A and tank B that caused the flow.
This comparison illustrates the principle that electrons move, when a path is available, from a point of excess electrons (higher potential energy) to a point deficient in electrons (lower potential energy). The force that causes this movement is the potential difference in electrical energy between the two points. This force is called the electrical pressure or the potential difference or the electromotive force (electron moving force).
Current
Electrons in motion make up an electric current. This electric current is usually referred to as “current” or “current flow,” no matter how many electrons are moving. Current is a measurement of a rate at which a charge flows through some region of space or a conductor. The moving charges are the free electrons found in conductors, such as copper, silver, aluminum, and gold. The term “free electron” describes a condition in some atoms where the outer electrons are loosely bound to their parent atom. These loosely bound electrons can be easily motivated to move in a given direction when an external source, such as a battery, is applied to the circuit. These electrons are attracted to the positive terminal of the battery, while the negative terminal is the source of the electrons. The greater amount of charge moving through the conductor in a given amount of time translates into a current.
The System International (SI) unit for current is the ampere (A), where
One ampere (A) of current is equivalent to 1 coulomb (C) of charge passing through a conductor in 1 second. One coulomb of charge equals 6.28 billion electrons. The symbol used to indicate current in formulas or on schematics is the capital letter “I.”
When current flow is one direction, it is called direct current (DC). Later in the text, the form of current that periodically oscillates back and forth within the circuit is discussed. The present discussion is only concerned with the use of DC. The velocity of the charge is actually an average velocity and is called drift velocity. To understand the idea of drift velocity, think of a conductor in which the charge carriers are free electrons. These electrons are always in a state of random motion similar to that of gas molecules. When a voltage is applied across the conductor, an emf creates an electric field within the conductor and a current is established. The electrons do not move in a straight direction but undergo repeated collisions with other nearby atoms. These collisions usually knock other free electrons from their atoms, and these electrons move on toward the positive end of the conductor with an average velocity called the drift velocity, which is relatively a slow speed. To understand the nearly instantaneous speed of the effect of the current, it is helpful to visualize a long tube filled with steel balls as shown in Figure 12-38. It can be seen that a ball introduced in one end of the tube, which represents the conductor, will immediately cause a ball to be emitted at the opposite end of the tube.
Thus, electric current can be viewed as instantaneous, even though it is the result of a relatively slow drift of electrons.
Ohm’s Law (Resistance)
The two fundamental properties of current and voltage are related by a third property known as resistance. In any electrical circuit, when voltage is applied to it, a current results. The resistance of the conductor determines the amount of current that flows under the given voltage. In most cases, the greater the circuit resistance, the less the current. If the resistance is reduced, then the current increases. This relation is linear in nature and is known as Ohm’s Law.
By having a linearly proportional characteristic, it is meant that if one unit in the relationship increases or decreases by a certain percentage, the other variables in the relationship increase or decrease by the same percentage. An example would be if the voltage across a resistor is doubled, then the current through the resistor doubles. It should be added that this relationship is true only if the resistance in the circuit remains constant. If the resistance changes, current also changes. A graph of this relationship is shown in Figure 12-39, which uses a constant resistance of 20Ω. The relationship between voltage and current in this example shows voltage plotted horizontally along the X axis in values from 0 to 120 volts, and the corresponding values of current are plotted vertically in values from 0 to 6.0 amperes along the Y axis. A straight line drawn through all the points where the voltage and current lines meet represents the equation I = E⁄20 and is called a linear relationship.
Ohm’s Law may be expressed as an equation, as follows:
Where I is current in amperes, E is the potential difference measured in volts, and R is the resistance measured in ohms. If any two of these circuit quantities are known, the third may be found by simple algebraic transposition. With this equation, we can calculate current in a circuit if the voltage and resistance are known. This same formula can be used to calculate voltage. By multiplying both sides of the equation 1 by R, we get an equivalent form of Ohm’s Law, which is:
Finally, if we divide equation 2 by I, we solve for resistance, This relationship is true only if the resistance in the circuit remains constant. If the resistance changes, current also changes. A graph of this relationship is shown in Figure 12-39, which uses a constant resistance of 20Ω. The relationship between voltage and current in this example shows voltage plotted horizontally along the X axis in values from 0 to 120 volts. The corresponding values of current are plotted vertically in values from 0 to 6.0 amperes along the Y axis. A straight line drawn through all the points where the voltage and current lines meet represents the equation I = E⁄20 and is called a linear relationship.
All three formulas presented in this section are equivalent to each other and are simply different ways of expressing Ohm’s Law.
The various equations, which may be derived by transposing the basic law, can be easily obtained by using the triangles in Figure 12-40.
The triangles containing E, R, and I are divided into two parts, with E above the line and I × R below it. To determine an unknown circuit quantity when the other two are known, cover the unknown quantity with a thumb. The location of the remaining uncovered letters in the triangle indicate the mathematical operation to be performed. For example, to find I, refer to Figure 12-40A, and cover I with the thumb. The uncovered letters indicate that E is to be divided by R, or I = E⁄R. To find R, refer to Figure 12-40B, and cover R with the thumb. The result indicates that E is to be divided by I, or R = E⁄I. To find E, refer to Figure 12-40C, and cover E with the thumb. The result indicates I is to be multiplied by R, or E = I × R. This chart is useful when learning to use Ohm’s Law. It should be used to supplement the beginner’s knowledge of the algebraic method.
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