Most autopilot systems consist of four basic components, plus various switches and auxiliary units. The four basic components are: sensing elements, computing element, output elements, and command elements. Many advanced autopilot systems contain a fifth element: feedback or follow-up. This refers to signals sent as corrections are being made by the output elements to advise the autopilot of the progress being made. [Figure 10-108]
Sensing Elements
The attitude and directional gyros, the turn coordinator, and an altitude control are the autopilot sensing elements. These units sense the movements of the aircraft. They generate electric signals that are used by the autopilot to automatically take the required corrective action needed to keep the aircraft flying as intended. The sensing gyros can be located in the cockpit mounted instruments. They can also be remotely mounted. Remote gyro sensors drive the servo displays in the cockpit panel, as well as provide the input signals to the autopilot computer.
Modern digital autopilots may use a variety of different sensors. MEMS gyros may be used or accompanied by the use solid state accelerometers and magnetometers. Rate based systems may not use gyros at all. Various input sensors may be located within the same unit or in separate units that transfer information via digital data bus. Navigation information is also integrated via digital data bus connection to avionics computers.
Computer and Amplifier
The computing element of an autopilot may be analog or digital. Its function is to interpret the sensing element data, integrate commands and navigational input, and send signals to the output elements to move the flight controls as required to control the aircraft. An amplifier is used to strengthen the signal for processing, if needed, and for use by the output devices, such as servo motors. The amplifier and associated circuitry is the computer of an analog autopilot system. Information is handled in channels corresponding to the axis of control for which the signals are intended (i.e., pitch channel, roll channel, or yaw channel). Digital systems use solid state microprocessor computer technology and typically only amplify signals sent to the output elements.
Output Elements
The output elements of an autopilot system are the servos that cause actuation of the flight control surfaces. They are independent devices for each of the control channels that integrate into the regular flight control system. Autopilot servo designs vary widely depending on the method of actuation of the flight controls. Cable-actuated systems typically utilize electric servo motors or electro-pneumatic servos. Hydraulic actuated flight control systems use electrohydraulic autopilot servos. Digital fly-by-wire aircraft utilize the same actuators for carrying out manual and autopilot maneuvers. When the autopilot is engaged, the actuators respond to commands from the autopilot rather than exclusively from the pilot. Regardless, autopilot servos must allow unimpeded control surface movement when the autopilot is not operating.
Aircraft with cable actuated control surfaces use two basic types of electric motor-operated servos. In one, a motor is connected to the servo output shaft through reduction gears. The motor starts, stops, and reverses direction in response to the commands of autopilot computer. The other type of electric servo uses a constantly running motor geared to the output shaft through two magnetic clutches. The clutches are arranged so that energizing one clutch transmits motor torque to turn the output shaft in one direction; energizing the other clutch turns the shaft in the opposite direction. [Figure 10-109] Electropneumatic servos can also be used to drive cable flight controls in some autopilot systems. They are controlled by electrical signals from the autopilot amplifier and actuated by an appropriate air pressure source. The source may be a vacuum system pump or turbine engine bleed air. Each servo consists of an electromagnetic valve assembly and an output linkage assembly.
Command Elements
The command unit, called a flight controller, is the human interface of the autopilot. It allows the pilot to tell the autopilot what to do. Flight controllers vary with the complexity of the autopilot system. By pressing the desired function buttons, the pilot causes the controller to send instruction signals to the autopilot computer, enabling it to activate the proper servos to carry out the command(s). Level flight, climbs, descents, turning to a heading, or flying a desired heading are some of the choices available on most autopilots. Many aircraft make use of a multitude of radio navigational aids. These can be selected to issue commands directly to the autopilot computer. [Figure 10-110]
In addition to an on/off switch on the autopilot controller, most autopilots have a disconnect switch located on the control wheel(s). This switch, operated by thumb pressure, can be used to disengage the autopilot system should a malfunction occur in the system or any time the pilot wishes to take manual control of the aircraft.
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